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What Are Stem Cells? Science Behind Performance & Longevity

3D illustration of a stem cell with a glowing orange nucleus, sending rippling signals to nearby cells.

What used to be whispered about in elite athletic circles and executive wellness retreats has now entered mainstream health conversations. Stem cells are no longer fringe or theoretical. They're becoming a legitimate option for anyone looking to maintain their independence, mental sharpness, and physical performance as the years add up.

So what are stem cells? They’re your body’s original building blocks, unspecialized cells that can develop into many different tissue types. They also act like a repair reserve, helping your body respond to wear, injury, and everyday breakdown over time.

Stem cell therapy is the clinical version of that idea. It uses a measured dose of stem cells, delivered through an infusion or a targeted injection, with the goal of supporting the body’s natural repair and signaling processes.

At RMI Health, one of the world's best stem cell clinics, we translate this science into practical treatment protocols. Everything we do is evidence-backed, safety-focused, and built around one goal: keeping you healthy and capable for as long as possible.

What Is a Stem Cell?

In the simplest terms, a stem cell is an unspecialized cell that can either make more of itself or mature into other cell types your body needs. Think of them as your body's spare parts factory, supplying the replacement parts over a lifetime.

Illustration showing stem cells differentiating into specialised cells, including a neuron, muscle cell, and epithelial cell.

Two key abilities make them unique:

  1. Self-Renewal is the ability to make copies of themselves. Unlike ordinary cells, which divide a fixed number of times before reaching senescence, stem cells can theoretically divide indefinitely while maintaining their undifferentiated state. This capacity for expansive proliferation is essential to both the development and lifelong maintenance of adult tissues [1],[2].
  2. Differentiation is the capacity to develop into specialized cells – muscle, bone, cartilage, nerve, blood vessels, and more – that can replace damaged or aging tissue. When injury or inflammation signals the body, stem cells receive chemical cues and transform into the exact cell type needed for repair [1],[3].

Here's a useful analogy: imagine your body as a house requiring constant upkeep. Stem cells function like skilled contractors who can handle whatever job comes up – whether that's patching the roof (skin repair), fixing leaky pipes (blood vessel damage), or stabilizing the foundation (bone maintenance). How stem cells work – specifically, how effectively and quickly they respond – directly impacts your recovery from injuries and your resistance to age-related deterioration.

What Are The Different Types of Stem Cells?

Stem cell science recognizes three primary categories, each bringing unique capabilities and challenges to clinical practice. One of the most important facts about stem cells is that their capabilities (and risks!) depend on their type and origin.

Stem Cell Type
Where They Come From
Current Medical Use
Main Drawback
Embryonic (ESCs)
Early-stage embryos
RMI doesn't use these
Form tumors, ethical issues
Induced Pluripotent (iPSCs)
Lab-modified adult cells
Still in research
Tumor formation risk
Mesenchymal (MSCs)
Cord tissue, bone marrow, fat
Most widely used today
Quality varies by source

1. Embryonic Stem Cells (ESCs)

Derived from human embryos, embryonic stem cells possess pluripotency – the ability to differentiate into any cell type in the body.

However, ESCs carry a significant safety burden: they form teratomas (tumors containing multiple tissue types) and can differentiate into malignant tumors when transplanted. Ethical concerns surrounding the use of embryos have also limited their clinical use. Notably, RMI Health does not use embryonic stem cells, avoiding these tumorigenicity risks entirely [4].

2. Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs)

Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells are adult cells artificially reprogrammed to an embryonic-like state through genetic manipulation. While theoretically promising, iPSCs remain clinically unavailable because they share the tumorigenicity concerns of ESCs.

Preclinical studies show that nearly all iPSCs form teratomas when transplanted, and mice engineered to contain iPSC-derived tissues exhibit malignant tumor incidence rates of up to 20%. The genetic alterations introduced during iPSC generation can activate proto-oncogenes and inactivate tumor suppressor genes, mirroring cancer-causing events [4],[9],[10].

3. Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs)

Mesenchymal Stem Cells are among the most extensively studied and clinically applied adult stem cell types in regenerative medicine. MSCs can be isolated from various tissues (bone marrow, adipose tissue, and umbilical cord), but the source matters enormously.

MSCs sourced from umbilical cord Wharton's jelly represent a unique advantage: they are "Day 0" cells, derived from perinatal tissue at a much younger biological baseline than adult-derived MSCs. This youth confers superior expansion capacity and stronger regenerative signaling. Unlike stem cells harvested from a 60-year-old's bone marrow or fat tissue (which are themselves 60 years old, accumulating decades of environmental damage), Wharton's jelly-derived MSCs begin with optimal proliferative and differentiation potential [5],[6],[7],[8].

Why Are Stem Cells Important for Your Body?

Everyone possesses stem cells, but aging fundamentally compromises their quantity and quality. This decline is not uniform: research shows that while some stem cell populations increase in number with age (such as hematopoietic stem cells in bone marrow), the common features of aging stem cells are reduced clonal diversity and reduced function [11],[12].

To understand the importance of stem cells, it helps to look at how sharply their numbers and performance drop with age.

How Stem Cell Levels Shift With Age

The statistics tell a stark story about what stem cells do for the body over time. At birth, roughly 1 in every 10,000 bone marrow cells is a mesenchymal stem cell. By the time you reach advanced age, that ratio has plummeted to approximately 1 in several million. Interestingly, while MSC numbers decline, another bone marrow stem cell type called hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) actually increases in number with age – though like MSCs, their functional quality still deteriorates.

Beyond the raw numbers, the stem cells you do have left don't work as well – they're slower to respond when injury occurs, they divide less vigorously, and they've accumulated internal damage from oxidative stress over the years [11],[13],[14].

Scientists describe this phenomenon as a bottleneck in your body's repair capacity. Your repair signaling gets weaker, chronic inflammation creeps higher, and stem cell function declines. Eventually, damage accumulates faster than your tissues can fix themselves, creating the conditions for osteoarthritis, physical frailty, mental decline, and the constellation of problems we associate with aging.

Introducing fresh, youthful stem cells restores your body's communication network and breaks through that bottleneck. This is why stem cells are important in medicine – instead of just covering up symptoms, they address the fundamental breakdown in your repair machinery.

Illustration of stem cells releasing healing signals toward damaged tissue.

How Do Mesenchymal Stem Cells Work?

There's a common misconception about how stem cells work – many people think transplanted stem cells literally transform into new cartilage, organs, or tissues on the spot. The actual mechanism is both more subtle and more powerful.

MSCs function primarily as biological messengers. When introduced into damaged or inflamed areas, they don't simply convert into replacement tissue. Instead, they pump out bioactive compounds – including exosomes, growth factors, and cytokines – that essentially wake up your existing cells and command them to start repairing themselves. These bioactive compounds are particularly important: they carry proteins and genetic instructions that reprogram nearby cells to shift into repair mode. [5],[15],[16]

The Three Primary Functions of MSCs

The three main functions of MSCs are:

  1. Reduce Inflammation

MSCs dial down inflammatory signals and nudge immune cells called macrophages toward an anti-inflammatory profile. This shifts the local tissue environment from a destructive inflammatory state to one that favors healing. This is crucial because chronic inflammation drives the progression of most degenerative conditions [17],[18],[19],[20].

  1. Modulate the Immune System

MSCs communicate with multiple immune cell types, including T cells, B cells, and macrophages, helping regulate your immune system's activity. This becomes particularly valuable in conditions like rheumatoid arthritis, where your immune system mistakenly attacks healthy tissue [18],[20].

  1. Regenerate Tissue

MSCs activate your body's own resident stem cells and progenitor cells, instructing them to develop into cartilage, nerve tissue, and blood vessel structures. This creates a multiplier effect where the regenerative response extends far beyond what the injected cells alone could accomplish [17],[18].

Where Do You Get Stem Cells for Therapy?

Modern regenerative medicine relies on two fundamentally different sourcing strategies, and understanding how stem cells are used depends on knowing these approaches:

The Autologous (Old) Approach

This method extracts stem cells directly from your own bone marrow or fat deposits. While this eliminates immune rejection concerns, it introduces serious limitations:

  • Invasive extraction – requires inserting needles into bone or abdominal tissue.
  • Aged cells – cells from a 60-year-old patient have also aged for 60 years.
  • Diminished potency – decades of cellular wear result in weaker regenerative capacity [11],[13],[21].

The Allogeneic (New) Approach

This approach sources mesenchymal stem cells from donated umbilical cord tissue, specifically from Wharton's jelly – the gel-like connective tissue surrounding cord blood vessels.

The benefits include:

  • Non-surgical delivery – simple IV infusion or direct injection with no tissue harvesting.
  • Youthful cells – sourced from birth tissue at peak biological condition.
  • Immune compatibility – naturally tolerated with minimal rejection risk.
  • Enhanced effectiveness – superior anti-inflammatory properties and tissue repair capacity [7],[8],[22].

RMI Health works exclusively with cord-derived MSCs, processing them in our own facility under pharmaceutical-grade cleanroom standards (ISO 5 and ISO 7 classifications). Every batch undergoes comprehensive quality testing to verify cell identity, health, and freedom from infectious agents.

What Are Stem Cells Used For in Therapy?

Clinical applications extend across multiple health domains, with the most robust evidence appearing in orthopedic medicine and age-related conditions. Understanding what stem cells are used for helps clarify which conditions respond best to stem cell treatments.

Orthopedic Injuries and Joint Degeneration

Orthopedic conditions represent one of the most extensively studied applications for mesenchymal stem cell therapy. Stem cell injections can address problems in knees, shoulders, hips, and spinal discs by promoting cartilage repair and reducing inflammation without requiring surgery.

Clinical research demonstrates that MSC therapy is safe for treating moderate to severe osteoarthritis, with multiple studies reporting improvements in pain levels and joint function [23],[24]. The therapy works by activating the body’s natural repair mechanisms and reducing chronic inflammation in damaged joints, offering patients a regenerative approach rather than just symptom management.

RMI Health provides:

Anti-Aging and Longevity

Stem cell therapy shows promise for addressing age-related physical decline and frailty. Clinical research demonstrates that MSC infusions can improve physical function, reduce inflammatory biomarkers, and enhance overall quality of life in elderly patients. Studies reviewed in recent analyses show that intravenous allogeneic MSC therapy is safe for frail elderly patients and produces measurable improvements in physical performance, including walking distance and lung function, along with reductions in inflammatory markers [25].

For those seeking to optimize longevity, our stem cell infusion protocols deliver whole-body rejuvenation by reducing system-wide inflammation and supporting tissue repair.

RMI Health's longevity programs:

Autoimmune and Inflammatory Disorders

MSC-based therapy shows promise in lupus, multiple sclerosis, and rheumatoid arthritis, suppressing pathogenic immune responses while promoting tissue repair [17],[18].

Sexual Wellness and Erectile Function

Stem cell-based sexual wellness protocols focus on improving tissue health, circulation, and inflammation control, which directly affect erection quality in men and comfort, lubrication, and tissue resilience in women. At RMI Health, this is delivered through Enhance for men and Harmony for women. In our internal tracking, Enhance has shown a 70% success rate, including an increase on the SHIM scale.

What Are the Risks of Using Stem Cells in Therapy?

Every medical procedure carries some risk, and stem cell therapy is no exception. That said, the safety record is strong. When researchers analyze data across thousands of MSC treatments, the evidence consistently shows favorable safety outcomes. This matches what we've seen in our own patient tracking at RMI.

Safety outcomes improve dramatically when you combine two things: high-quality manufacturing standards and experienced medical teams working in properly equipped facilities. Both matter equally.

What Temporary Side Effects Are Most Common?

Most patients experience mild, short-term reactions that resolve on their own:

  • Soreness and swelling where cells were injected;
  • Tiredness, mild headache, or low-grade fever;
  • These typically clear up within hours to a few days.

How Does RMI Maintain Safety Standards?

We protect patient safety through multiple layers of quality control:

  • Lab facilities meeting pharmaceutical manufacturing standards (ISO 5 and ISO 7 certification);
  • Multiple screening rounds for infectious diseases, including HIV, hepatitis, and syphilis; from donor selection to all steps during the production process;
  • Comprehensive quality checks at every stage of cellular production;
  • Partnership with Regenesis Labs, currently pursuing GMP certification, for enhanced oversight;
  • Certified medical staff with decades of cumulative experience and specialization training in complex clinical settings. All clinical staff are certified in advanced cardiac life support.

Can MSCs Cause Tumors?

Here's a crucial safety difference: adult MSCs generally don't form tumors the way embryonic or lab-reprogrammed cells can. That's a fundamental biological limitation that keeps them safer.

However, we don't treat patients with active cancer or those in high-risk recurrence windows. Early research suggests MSCs might promote blood vessel formation and other signals that could theoretically support tumor growth. That's why we exclude these cases – it's precautionary risk management based on emerging science, not evidence that the cells themselves cause cancer.

How Do Unregulated Clinics Increase Risk?

Well-manufactured MSC treatments administered by qualified professionals in accredited facilities have a safety profile that's worlds apart from unregulated "stem cell cocktails" marketed by unlicensed operators. That distinction isn't just important – it's critical for your safety and any chance of therapeutic benefit.

Every patient is different. Your results will depend on your specific condition, overall health, and which protocol makes sense for you. This is why consultation with qualified medical professionals is essential before moving forward with treatment.

What’s the Typical Cost of Stem Cell Therapy?

In the US, pricing ranges widely. Many offerings are single-day procedures limited by what can be harvested in one sitting, yet still priced at $15,000+.

Comprehensive, high-dose protocols in Costa Rica (like RMI’s) typically start at $19,000 because they involve high volumes of live cells (millions, not thousands) and VIP concierge care.

What you pay for stem cell therapy depends less on geography and more on what you’re actually getting: how many viable cells, how advanced the protocol, and what level of medical care comes with it.

Also, rather than viewing stem cell therapy as purely an expense, consider it an investment in your long-term health and independence. Compare the upfront cost against what you’d spend over the years on ongoing symptom management, physical therapy, pain medications, and potentially invasive surgery down the road.

For a full breakdown of pricing and what drives the range, see Stem Cell Therapy Cost.

Why Is Costa Rica a Leading Destination for Stem Cell Therapy?

Costa Rica has emerged as a premier destination for stem cell therapy, and the reasons go well beyond just favorable pricing.

Regulatory Advantage

U.S. FDA regulations tightly restrict stem cell therapies to "minimally manipulated" preparations, limiting most clinics to low-count autologous cells harvested in session.

Costa Rica's Health Ministry takes a different approach. Decree 39,986-S explicitly authorizes culture / expansion of allogeneic adult stem cells at approved facilities meeting safety, characterization, and administration standards – enabling high-dose protocols (hundreds of millions of cells) [31]. This clarity allows Costa Rican clinics to offer expanded treatments unavailable legally in U.S. settings.

Licensure and Standards

RMI Health holds the only license in Costa Rica to produce and expand mesenchymal stem cells. This distinction came after seven years of regulatory compliance and scientific validation. Our facility operates under ISO 5 and ISO 7 certification – the same cleanroom standards used in pharmaceutical manufacturing.

Medical Expertise and Tourism Infrastructure

Costa Rica has cultivated a well-established medical tourism ecosystem with U.S. and European-trained physicians specializing in regenerative medicine. Combined with the country's reputation for safety, luxury accommodations, and serene recovery environments, it offers both clinical excellence and holistic healing support. Our concierge services handle everything from airport transfers to recovery accommodations, letting you focus entirely on healing.

How to Increase Stem Cells Naturally?

While clinical therapy delivers concentrated results, certain lifestyle practices can support your body's natural stem cell activity.

1. Intermittent Fasting

Intermittent fasting triggers autophagy – your body's cellular cleanup process. When you fast, your body switches to maintenance mode, activating processes where cells break down and recycle damaged components. Studies suggest fasting can prompt stem cells to shift from dormant to active regenerative states. Common approaches include the 16:8 method (fast 16 hours, eat within 8 hours) or 18:6 method [29],[30].

2. Deep Sleep

Sleep is when your body does its most important repair work. During deep sleep, your body releases significant growth hormone, activating stem cells and promoting their renewal. Most adults need 7-9 hours of quality sleep nightly. Maintain consistent sleep schedules, keep your bedroom cool (65-68°F), minimize blue light exposure 2 hours before bed, and avoid late caffeine.

3. High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)

Intense exercise activates muscle stem cells. High-intensity training creates controlled stress that signals satellite cells to activate and multiply. Examples include sprint intervals, cycling sprints, or circuit training. Aim for 2-3 HIIT sessions weekly with adequate rest days – recovery is when stem cells do their work.

4. Reduce Sugar

High blood sugar accelerates cellular aging. Elevated glucose triggers glycation, where sugar binds to proteins and DNA, creating harmful compounds that damage stem cells. Minimize refined carbohydrates, sugary drinks, and processed foods. Focus on whole grains, vegetables, lean proteins, and healthy fats.

5. Antioxidant-Rich Foods

Oxidative stress damages stem cells and accelerates aging. Combat this with antioxidant-rich foods: leafy greens (spinach, kale), berries (blueberries, strawberries), nuts and seeds (walnuts, almonds), dark chocolate (70%+ cacao), and fatty fish rich in omega-3s.

Note that while these lifestyle strategies help optimize your natural stem cell activity, they cannot match the sheer volume and potency of a clinical infusion for treating injury or advanced aging.

Take the Next Step in Your Health Journey

Stem cells represent nature’s most sophisticated tissue renewal mechanism, refined through billions of years of evolution. The question isn’t whether your body can repair itself – it’s whether it has the resources to do so effectively as you age.

Traditional medicine excels at managing symptoms once damage has already occurred. Stem cell therapy takes a fundamentally different approach: it is designed to support the body’s repair signaling and recovery processes, rather than only managing symptoms.

At RMI Health, we’ve spent years translating cutting-edge stem cell science into clinical protocols that deliver measurable improvements in joint function, systemic inflammation, and overall vitality. Our Costa Rica facility combines strict lab quality standards with comprehensive medical care to deliver a higher standard of regenerative treatment.

Whether you’re dealing with chronic joint pain, seeking to optimize your healthspan, or looking to address age-related decline before it limits your independence, the decision ultimately comes down to this: do you want to keep managing symptoms indefinitely, or are you ready to invest in restoring your body’s natural ability to heal and regenerate?

Is Stem Cell Therapy Right for You?

Discover whether your condition qualifies for our advanced regenerative protocols. Connect with our patient concierge team today to discuss your specific health goals and explore which treatment approach makes the most sense for you.

Frequently Asked Questions

  1. Can stem cells reverse aging?

Not currently, though the science is advancing rapidly. Today's MSC treatments work by strengthening your natural repair processes, slowing age-related decline, optimizing organ function, and potentially extending healthy lifespan. Future cellular reprogramming techniques may achieve true age reversal, but those remain in development.

  1. Are stem cell treatments covered by insurance?

No. Insurance companies categorize stem cell therapies as investigational. Patients pay directly, with costs typically ranging from $15,000-$25,000+. RMI provides payment plan options and financing through our patient concierge service.

  1. What is the most common stem cell treatment?

Intravenous infusions (for system-wide issues like age-related frailty and autoimmune diseases) and targeted joint injections (for specific problems like knee osteoarthritis or shoulder damage). Your condition determines which approach makes sense.

  1. Does Medicare pay for stem cell therapy for knees?

Medicare generally does not cover stem cell therapy because it’s considered investigational for most uses; coverage varies, so patients should confirm with their plan.

  1. How long do the benefits of stem cell therapy last?

Joint treatments: typically 6-12 months, with studies showing benefits lasting 4+ years.
Systemic infusions: generally 12+ months, with some research tracking benefits to 5 years.

Duration varies based on your condition's severity, age, activity demands, and lifestyle habits. Many patients schedule maintenance sessions every 6-12 months. Even as effects gradually fade, most people continue functioning significantly better than before treatment.

References

[1] He S, Nakada D, Morrison SJ. Mechanisms of stem cell self-renewal. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol. 2009 Nov 3;25:377-406.

[2] Avery S, Inniss K, Moore H. The regulation of self-renewal in human embryonic stem cells. Stem Cells Dev. 2006 Oct;15(5):729-40.

[3] Zhang YV, Cheong J, Ciapurin N, McDermitt DJ, Tumbar T. Distinct Self-Renewal and Differentiation Phases in the Niche of Infrequently Dividing Hair Follicle Stem Cells. Cell Stem Cell. 2009 Sep 4;5(3):267-78.

[4] Knoepfler PS. Deconstructing Stem Cell Tumorigenicity: A Roadmap to Safe Regenerative Medicine. Stem Cells. 2009 May;27(5):1050.

[5] Trigo CM, Rodrigues JS, Camões SP, Solá S, Miranda JP. Mesenchymal stem cell secretome for regenerative medicine: Where do we stand? J Adv Res. 2025 Apr 1;70:103-24.

[6] Jones EA, Yang X, Giannoudis P, McGonagle D. Chapter 7 - "Trophic" Actions of MSCs. In: Mesenchymal Stem Cells and Skeletal Regeneration. 2013. p. 39-40.

[7] Lin HD, Fong CY, Biswas A, Bongso A. Allogeneic human umbilical cord Wharton's jelly stem cells increase several-fold the expansion of human cord blood CD34+ cells both in vitro and in vivo. Stem Cell Res Ther. 2020 Dec 1;11(1):527.

[8] Caseiro AR, Pereira T, Ribeiro J, Santos JD, Amorim I, Luís AL, et al. Neuro-muscular regeneration using scaffolds with mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) isolated from human umbilical cord Wharton's jelly. Ciência & Tecnologia dos Materiais. 2017 Jan 1;29(1):e135-9.

[9] Zhong C, Liu M, Pan X, Zhu H. Tumorigenicity risk of iPSCs in vivo: nip it in the bud. Precis Clin Med. 2022 Mar 22;5(1).

[10] Hillenius S, Montilla-Rojo J, Eleveld TF, Salvatori DCF, Looijenga LHJ. Safety Issues Related to Pluripotent Stem Cell-Based Therapies: Tumour Risk.

[11] Yao B, Huang S, Gao D, Xie J, Liu N, Fu X. Age‐associated changes in regenerative capabilities of mesenchymal stem cell: impact on chronic wounds repair. Int Wound J. 2015;13(6):1252.

[12] Farahzadi R, Valipour B, Montazersaheb S, Fathi E. Targeting the stem cell niche micro-environment as therapeutic strategies in aging. Front Cell Dev Biol. 2023 May 19;11:1162136.

[13] Stolzing A, Jones E, McGonagle D, Scutt A. Age-related changes in human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells: Consequences for cell therapies. Mech Ageing Dev. 2008 Mar;129(3):163-73.

[14] Miyawaki S, Okada Y, Okano H, Miura K. Teratoma Formation Assay for Assessing Pluripotency and Tumorigenicity of Pluripotent Stem Cells. Bio Protoc. 2017;7(16):e2518.

[15] Liang W, Han B, Hai Y, Sun D, Yin P. Mechanism of Action of Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Exosomes in the Intervertebral Disc Degeneration Treatment and Bone Repair and Regeneration. Front Cell Dev Biol. 2022 Jan 14;9:833840.

[16] Tan F, Li X, Wang Z, Li J, Shahzad K, Zheng J. Clinical applications of stem cell-derived exosomes. Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy. 2024 Jan 12;9(1):1-31.

[17] Amirhossein H, Arash A, Aida N, Asadollah A, Hussein AG. Immunomodulatory Functions of Mesenchymal Stem Cells in Tissue Engineering. Arch Razi Inst. 2025 Apr 1;80(2):313.

[18] Han X, Liao R, Li X, Zhang C, Huo S, Qin L, et al. Mesenchymal stem cells in treating human diseases: molecular mechanisms and clinical studies. Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy. 2025 Aug 22;10(1):262.

[19] Song N, Scholtemeijer M, Shah K. Mesenchymal Stem Cell Immunomodulation: Mechanisms and Therapeutic potential. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 2020 Sep 1;41(9):653.

[20] Peng Y, Li W, Zhang Q. Editorial: Immunomodulation of MSCs in tissue repairing and regeneration. Front Immunol. 2023 Feb 13;14:1150106.

[21] Golpanian S, El-Khorazaty J, Mendizabal A, DiFede DL, Suncion VY, Karantalis V, et al. Effect of Aging on Human Mesenchymal Stem Cell Therapy in Ischemic Cardiomyopathy Patients. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2015 Jan 20;65(2):125–32.

[22] Doi H, Kitajima Y, Luo L, Yan C, Tateishi S, Ono Y, et al. Potency of umbilical cord blood- and Wharton's jelly-derived mesenchymal stem cells for scarless wound healing. Scientific Reports. 2016 Jan 5;6(1):18844.

[23] Al-Najar M, Khalil H, Al-Ajlouni J, Al-Antary E, Hamdan M, Rahmeh R, et al. Intra-articular injection of expanded autologous bone marrow mesenchymal cells in moderate and severe knee osteoarthritis is safe: A phase I/II study. J Orthop Surg Res. 2017 Dec 12;12(1).

[24] Anderson JA, Little D, Toth AP, Moorman CT, Tucker BS, Ciccotti MG, et al. Stem Cell Therapies for Knee Cartilage Repair: The Current Status of Preclinical and Clinical Studies. Am J Sports Med. 2013 Sep 1;42(9):2253.

[25] Garay RP. Recent clinical trials with stem cells to slow or reverse normal aging processes. Frontiers in Aging. 2023;4:1148926.

[26] Gu W, Hong X, Potter C, Qu A, Xu Q. Mesenchymal stem cells and vascular regeneration. Microcirculation. 2017 Jan 1;24(1):e12324.

[27] Huang NF, Li S. Mesenchymal stem cells for vascular regeneration. Regenerative Med. 2008;3(6):877.

[28] RMI Health. Enhance (Sexual Wellness Program).

[29] Bagherniya et al. (2018). The effect of fasting or calorie restriction on autophagy induction: A review of the literature. Ageing Research Reviews.

[30] Cheng et al. (2014). Prolonged fasting reduces IGF-1/PKA to promote hematopoietic-stem-cell-based regeneration and reverse immunosuppression. Cell Stem Cell.

[31] Decreto Ejecutivo N° 39.986-S (Ministerio de Salud, Costa Rica). Autorización para las Terapias Regenerativas con Células Madre Adultas. 8 de noviembre de 2016.

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